Assessment of stored red blood cells through lab-on-a-chip technologies for precision transfusion medicine.

Transfusion of red blood cells (RBCs) is one of the most valuable and widespread treatments in modern medicine. Lifesaving RBC transfusions are facilitated by the cold storage of RBC units in blood banks worldwide. Currently, RBC storage and subsequent transfusion practices are performed using simplistic workflows. More specifically, most blood banks follow the "first-in-first-out" principle to avoid wastage, whereas most healthcare providers prefer the "last-in-first-out" approach simply favoring chronologically younger RBCs. Neither approach addresses recent advances through -omics showing that stored RBC quality is highly variable depending on donor-, time-, and processing-specific factors. Thus, it is time to rethink our workflows in transfusion medicine taking advantage of novel technologies to perform RBC quality assessment. We imagine a future where lab-on-a-chip technologies utilize novel predictive markers of RBC quality identified by -omics and machine learning to usher in a new era of safer and precise transfusion medicine.

Microenvironments Matter: Advances in Brain-on-Chip.

To highlight the particular needs with respect to modeling the unique and complex organization of the human brain structure, we reviewed the state-of-the-art in devising brain models with engineered instructive microenvironments. To acquire a better perspective on the brain's working mechanisms, we first summarize the importance of regional stiffness gradients in brain tissue, varying per layer and the cellular diversities of the layers. Through this, one can acquire an understanding of the essential parameters in emulating the brain in vitro. In addition to the brain's organizational architecture, we addressed also how the mechanical properties have an impact on neuronal cell responses. In this respect, advanced in vitro platforms emerged and profoundly changed the methods of brain modeling efforts from the past, mainly focusing on animal or cell line research. The main challenges in imitating features of the brain in a dish are with regard to composition and functionality. In neurobiological research, there are now methods that aim to cope with such challenges by the self-assembly of human-derived pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs), i.e., brainoids. Alternatively, these brainoids can be used stand-alone or in conjunction with Brain-on-Chip (BoC) platform technology, 3D-printed gels, and other types of engineered guidance features. Currently, advanced in vitro methods have made a giant leap forward regarding cost-effectiveness, ease-of-use, and availability. We bring these recent developments together into one review. We believe our conclusions will give a novel perspective towards advancing instructive microenvironments for BoCs and the understanding of the brain's cellular functions either in modeling healthy or diseased states of the brain.

Human immunocompetent choroid-on-chip: a novel tool for studying ocular effects of biological drugs.

Disorders of the eye leading to visual impairment are a major issue that affects millions of people. On the other side ocular toxicities were described for e.g. molecularly targeted therapies in oncology and may hamper their development. Current ocular model systems feature a number of limitations affecting human-relevance and availability. To find new options for pharmacological treatment and assess mechanisms of toxicity, hence, novel complex model systems that are human-relevant and readily available are urgently required. Here, we report the development of a human immunocompetent Choroid-on-Chip (CoC), a human cell-based in vitro model of the choroid layer of the eye integrating melanocytes and microvascular endothelial cells, covered by a layer of retinal pigmented epithelial cells. Immunocompetence is achieved by perfusion of peripheral immune cells. We demonstrate controlled immune cell recruitment into the stromal compartments through a vascular monolayer and in vivo-like cytokine release profiles. To investigate applicability for both efficacy testing of immunosuppressive compounds as well as safety profiling of immunoactivating antibodies, we exposed the CoCs to cyclosporine and tested CD3 bispecific antibodies.

Paper-based microfluidic chip for rapid detection of SARS-CoV-2 N protein.

This research has developed a method for rapid detection of SARS-CoV-2 N protein on a paper-based microfluidic chip. The chitosan-glutaraldehyde cross-linking method is used to fix the coated antibody, and the sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent method is used to achieve the specific detection of the target antigen. The system studied the influence of coating antibody concentration and enzyme-labeled antibody concentration on target antigen detection. According to the average gray value measured under different N protein concentrations, the standard curve of the method was established and the sensitivity was tested, and its linear regression was obtained. The equation is y = 9.8286x+137.6, R2 = 0.9772 > 0.90, which shows a high degree of fit. When the concentration of coating antibody and enzyme-labeled antibody were 1 µg/mL and 2 µg/mL, P > 0.05, the difference was not statistically significant, so the lower concentration of 1 µg/mL was chosen as the coating antibody concentration. The results show that the minimum concentration of N protein that can be detected by this method is 8 µg/mL, and the minimum concentration of coating antibody and enzyme-labeled antibody is 1 µg/mL, which has the characteristics of high sensitivity and good repeatability.

Performance of a New Microfluidic Dengue NS1 Immuno-magnetic Agglutination Assay for the Rapid Diagnosis of Dengue Infection in Adults.

Dengue (DENV) infections are a public health concern worldwide and thus early diagnosis is important to ensure appropriate clinical management. The rapid diagnostic test (RDT) targets nonstructural protein 1 (NS1) detection and is the main tool used for diagnostic purpose. In this study, we evaluated the performance of a new rapid and semi-quantitative microfluidic DENV NS1 immuno-magnetic agglutination assay or IMA (ViroTrack Dengue Acute, BluSense Diagnostics, Copenhagen, Denmark). We studied 233 subjects confirmed to have DENV infection (by a real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction) and 200 control samples were taken from patients with confirmed diagnoses of other febrile illnesses, in Thailand. Samples were tested using the NS1 antigen (Ag) detection methods: in-house NS1 Ag ELISA (ELISA), SD BIOLINE Dengue NS1 Ag RDT (ICT), and ViroTrack Dengue Acute (IMA). Sensitivities of these tests were 86.3%, 78.9%, and 85.5%, respectively. All tests showed high specificity (100%, 99%, and 97% for ELISA, ICT, and IMA, respectively). The sensitivities of both RDTs were affected by the low sensitivity to DENV-2 and DENV-4. NS1 Ag was detected in every patient on day 1 and day 2 after onset of illness by ELISA and IMA with a decline in detection rates over time after day 6 of illness. NS1 detection rate using ICT decreased from 100% on day 1 of illness to 98.6% on day 2 after onset of illness. By day 6, the detection rate was 45.9%. Thus, IMA performed better than ICT for early and rapid diagnosis of DENV infections in endemic countries.

Harnessing the power of microphysiological systems for COVID-19 research.

The pharmaceutical industry is constantly striving for innovative ways to bridge the translational gap between preclinical and clinical drug development to reduce attrition. Substantial effort has focused on the preclinical application of human-based microphysiological systems (MPS) to better identify compounds not likely to be safe or efficacious in the clinic. The Coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic provides a clear opportunity for assessing the utility of MPS models of the lungs and other organ systems affected by the disease in understanding the pathophysiology of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and in the development of effective therapeutics. Here, we review progress and describe the establishment of a global working group to coordinate activities around MPS and COVID-19 and to maximize their scientific, human health, and animal welfare impacts.

Organoids and organs-on-chips: Insights into human gut-microbe interactions.

The important and diverse roles of the gut microbiota in human health and disease are increasingly recognized. The difficulty of inferring causation from metagenomic microbiome sequencing studies and from mouse-human interspecies differences has prompted the development of sophisticated in vitro models of human gut-microbe interactions. Here, we review recent advances in the co-culture of microbes with intestinal and colonic epithelia, comparing the rapidly developing fields of organoids and organs-on-chips with other standard models. We describe how specific individual processes by which microbes and epithelia interact can be recapitulated in vitro. Using examples of bacterial, viral, and parasitic infections, we highlight the advantages of each culture model and discuss current trends and future possibilities to build more complex co-cultures.

Microphysiological systems: What it takes for community adoption.

Microphysiological systems (MPS) are promising in vitro tools which could substantially improve the drug development process, particularly for underserved patient populations such as those with rare diseases, neural disorders, and diseases impacting pediatric populations. Currently, one of the major goals of the National Institutes of Health MPS program, led by the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS), is to demonstrate the utility of this emerging technology and help support the path to community adoption. However, community adoption of MPS technology has been hindered by a variety of factors including biological and technological challenges in device creation, issues with validation and standardization of MPS technology, and potential complications related to commercialization. In this brief Minireview, we offer an NCATS perspective on what current barriers exist to MPS adoption and provide an outlook on the future path to adoption of these in vitro tools.

Biomimetic microsystems for cardiovascular studies.

Traditional tissue culture platforms have been around for several decades and have enabled key findings in the cardiovascular field. However, these platforms failed to recreate the mechanical and dynamic features found within the body. Organs-on-chips (OOCs) are cellularized microfluidic-based devices that can mimic the basic structure, function, and responses of organs. These systems have been successfully utilized in disease, development, and drug studies. OOCs are designed to recapitulate the mechanical, electrical, chemical, and structural features of the in vivo microenvironment. Here, we review cardiovascular-themed OOC studies, design considerations, and techniques used to generate these cellularized devices. Furthermore, we will highlight the advantages of OOC models over traditional cell culture vessels, discuss implementation challenges, and provide perspectives on the state of the field.

Miniaturized free-flow electrophoresis: production, optimization, and application using 3D printing technology.

The increasing resolution of three-dimensional (3D) printing offers simplified access to, and development of, microfluidic devices with complex 3D structures. Therefore, this technology is increasingly used for rapid prototyping in laboratories and industry. Microfluidic free flow electrophoresis (µFFE) is a versatile tool to separate and concentrate different samples (such as DNA, proteins, and cells) to different outlets in a time range measured in mere tens of seconds and offers great potential for use in downstream processing, for example. However, the production of µFFE devices is usually rather elaborate. Many designs are based on chemical pretreatment or manual alignment for the setup. Especially for the separation chamber of a µFFE device, this is a crucial step which should be automatized. We have developed a smart 3D design of a µFFE to pave the way for a simpler production. This study presents (1) a robust and reproducible way to build up critical parts of a µFFE device based on high-resolution MultiJet 3D printing; (2) a simplified insertion of commercial polycarbonate membranes to segregate separation and electrode chambers; and (3) integrated, 3D-printed wells that enable a defined sample fractionation (chip-to-world interface). In proof of concept experiments both a mixture of fluorescence dyes and a mixture of amino acids were successfully separated in our 3D-printed µFFE device.

Human biomimetic liver microphysiology systems in drug development and precision medicine.

Microphysiology systems (MPS), also called organs-on-chips and tissue chips, are miniaturized functional units of organs constructed with multiple cell types under a variety of physical and biochemical environmental cues that complement animal models as part of a new paradigm of drug discovery and development. Biomimetic human liver MPS have evolved from simpler 2D cell models, spheroids and organoids to address the increasing need to understand patient-specific mechanisms of complex and rare diseases, the response to therapeutic treatments, and the absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion and toxicity of potential therapeutics. The parallel development and application of transdisciplinary technologies, including microfluidic devices, bioprinting, engineered matrix materials, defined physiological and pathophysiological media, patient-derived primary cells, and pluripotent stem cells as well as synthetic biology to engineer cell genes and functions, have created the potential to produce patient-specific, biomimetic MPS for detailed mechanistic studies. It is projected that success in the development and maturation of patient-derived MPS with known genotypes and fully matured adult phenotypes will lead to advanced applications in precision medicine. In this Review, we examine human biomimetic liver MPS that are designed to recapitulate the liver acinus structure and functions to enhance our knowledge of the mechanisms of disease progression and of the absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion and toxicity of therapeutic candidates and drugs as well as to evaluate their mechanisms of action and their application in precision medicine and preclinical trials.

Organs-on-chips: into the next decade.

Organs-on-chips (OoCs), also known as microphysiological systems or 'tissue chips' (the terms are synonymous), have attracted substantial interest in recent years owing to their potential to be informative at multiple stages of the drug discovery and development process. These innovative devices could provide insights into normal human organ function and disease pathophysiology, as well as more accurately predict the safety and efficacy of investigational drugs in humans. Therefore, they are likely to become useful additions to traditional preclinical cell culture methods and in vivo animal studies in the near term, and in some cases replacements for them in the longer term. In the past decade, the OoC field has seen dramatic advances in the sophistication of biology and engineering, in the demonstration of physiological relevance and in the range of applications. These advances have also revealed new challenges and opportunities, and expertise from multiple biomedical and engineering fields will be needed to fully realize the promise of OoCs for fundamental and translational applications. This Review provides a snapshot of this fast-evolving technology, discusses current applications and caveats for their implementation, and offers suggestions for directions in the next decade.

Utilization of a model hepatotoxic compound, diglycolic acid, to evaluate liver Organ-Chip performance and in vitro to in vivo concordance.

Microphysiological systems (MPS) are emerging as potentially predictive models for drug safety and toxicity assessment. To assess the utility of these systems, the Food and Drug Administration partnered with Emulate to evaluate the Human Liver Organ-Chip in a regulatory setting. Diglycolic acid (DGA), a known hepatotoxin, was evaluated in the Liver-Chip and compared to a multi-well plate format to assess the Liver-Chip's capabilities, limitations, overall performance, and concordance with other in vivo and in vitro studies. Cryopreserved primary human hepatocytes were exposed to DGA from 1 to 20 mM in Liver-Chips or traditional multi-well plates. We found that 10 mM or 20 mM of DGA was severely cytotoxic in both platforms, while 5 mM was mildly cytotoxic in Liver-Chips. Additionally, some hepatocyte functions were reduced with 5 mM DGA in Liver-Chips and 1 mM in well plates. Individual well effects were greater or occurred sooner than in the Liver-Chips. Examination of the performance of the Liver-Chip showed that variability was low for biochemical endpoints, but higher for imaging endpoints. Sensitivity and specificity were high. Only 3-4 Liver-Chips were necessary to detect an effect depending on the endpoint and effect size. The specifics of the experiment are found herein.

Detection of amoxicillin residues in egg extract with a molecularly imprinted polymer on gold microchip using surface plasmon resonance and quartz crystal microbalance methods.

In this study, surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) sensors were prepared for the detection of amoxicillin from the commercial and local chicken eggs by using molecular imprinting technique. Amoxicillin imprinted poly(hydroxyethyl methacrylate-methacrylic acid) polymeric film was synthesized onto the surface of the SPR and QCM chips by ultra violet polymerization to determine lower concentrations of amoxicillin. Ellipsometry, contact angle analysis, and atomic force microscopy measurements were used for the surface morphology of the polymeric film layer. The ellipsometric thickness of AMOX imprinted and nonimprinted SPR and QCM chip surfaces were measured as 35 ± 0.9 nm, 32.89 ± 1.9 nm, 30 ± 0.6 nm, and 28 ± 0.22 nm, respectively. Contact angles of bare gold surfaces, AMOX imprinted SPR and QCM chip surfaces were measured to be as 82.3° ± 0.15, 79.2° ± 0.14, 75.01° ± 1.07, and 69.11° ± 0.89, respectively. The range of linearity was measured as 0.1 to 10 ng/mL for amoxicillin imprinted SPR and QCM sensors. The maximum residue limit of AMOX in eggs is at 10 µg/kg in accordance with the "Positive List System for Agricultural Chemical Residues in Foods." The response time for the test, including adsorption, desorption, and regeneration, was approximately 45 min. The limit of detections for SPR and QCM sensors were found to be 0.0005 and 0.0023 ng/mL, respectively. The reusabilities of amoxicillin imprinted SPR and QCM sensors were observed by the equilibration-binding-regeneration. Validation studies of the AMOX imprinted SPR and QCM sensors were performed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry.

Integrated Neurophotonics: Toward Dense Volumetric Interrogation of Brain Circuit Activity-at Depth and in Real Time.

We propose a new paradigm for dense functional imaging of brain activity to surmount the limitations of present methodologies. We term this approach "integrated neurophotonics"; it combines recent advances in microchip-based integrated photonic and electronic circuitry with those from optogenetics. This approach has the potential to enable lens-less functional imaging from within the brain itself to achieve dense, large-scale stimulation and recording of brain activity with cellular resolution at arbitrary depths. We perform a computational study of several prototype 3D architectures for implantable probe-array modules that are designed to provide fast and dense single-cell resolution (e.g., within a 1-mm3 volume of mouse cortex comprising ∼100,000 neurons). We describe progress toward realizing integrated neurophotonic imaging modules, which can be produced en masse with current semiconductor foundry protocols for chip manufacturing. Implantation of multiple modules can cover extended brain regions.

Graphene Enclosure of Chemically Fixed Mammalian Cells for Liquid-Phase Electron Microscopy.

A protocol is described for investigating the human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) in the intact plasma membrane of breast cancer cells using scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM). Cells of the mammalian breast cancer cell line SKBR3 were grown on silicon microchips with silicon nitride (SiN) windows. Cells were chemically fixed, and HER2 proteins were labeled with quantum dot nanoparticles (QDs), using a two-step biotin-streptavidin binding protocol. The cells were coated with multilayer graphene to maintain a hydrated state, and to protect them from electron beam damage during STEM. To examine the stability of the samples under electron beam irradiation, a dose series experiment was performed. Graphene-coated and non-coated samples were compared. Beam induced damage, in the form of bright artifacts, appeared for some non-coated samples at increased electron dose D, while no artifacts appeared on coated samples.

Microchip-Based Structure Determination of Disease-Relevant p53.

The tumor suppressor protein TP53 (p53) plays a multifaceted role in all cells of the human body. Mutations in the TP53 gene are often involved in cancer induction and disease progression. Despite its important role in health and development, structural information for p53 remains incomplete. Here, we present a microchip-based technology to facilitate structural studies of p53 assemblies derived from human cancer cells. These devices do not introduce foreign sequences to the p53 gene and maintain naturally occurring post-translational modifications. Using cryo-electron microscopy, structures for the p53 monomer (∼50 kDa) and tetramer (∼200 kDa) were resolved to ∼4.8 and ∼7 Å, respectively. These structures revealed new insights for flexible regions of p53 along with biologically relevant ubiquitination sites. Collectively, the convergence of nanotechnology tools and structural imaging builds a strong framework to understand the oncogenic impact of p53 in human tissues.

Integrating Biosensors in Organs-on-Chip Devices: A Perspective on Current Strategies to Monitor Microphysiological Systems.

Organs-on-chip (OoC), often referred to as microphysiological systems (MPS), are advanced in vitro tools able to replicate essential functions of human organs. Owing to their unprecedented ability to recapitulate key features of the native cellular environments, they represent promising tools for tissue engineering and drug screening applications. The achievement of proper functionalities within OoC is crucial; to this purpose, several parameters (e.g., chemical, physical) need to be assessed. Currently, most approaches rely on off-chip analysis and imaging techniques. However, the urgent demand for continuous, noninvasive, and real-time monitoring of tissue constructs requires the direct integration of biosensors. In this review, we focus on recent strategies to miniaturize and embed biosensing systems into organs-on-chip platforms. Biosensors for monitoring biological models with metabolic activities, models with tissue barrier functions, as well as models with electromechanical properties will be described and critically evaluated. In addition, multisensor integration within multiorgan platforms will be further reviewed and discussed.